Retrospective Characterization of Initial Peste des petits ruminants Outbreaks (2008-2012) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute, contagious viral disease of small ruminants, goats and sheep. The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) was a PPR-free country until 2007, although in 2006, scare alerts were received from the east and the southwest of the country, reporting repeated mortalities, specifically in goats. In 2008, PPR outbreaks were seen in several villages in the west, leading to structured veterinary field operations. Blood, swabs and pathological specimens consisting of tissues from lungs, spleens, lymph nodes, kidneys, livers and hearts were ethically collected from clinically infected and/or dead animals, as appropriate, in 35 districts. Epidemiological information relating to major risk factors and socio-economic impact was progressively collected, revealing the deaths of 744,527 goats, which converted to a trade value of USD 35,674,600. Samples from infected and dead animals were routinely analyzed by the Central Veterinary Laboratory at Kinshasa for diagnosis, and after official declaration of PPR outbreaks by the FAO in July 2012, selected tissue samples were sent to The Pirbright Institute, United Kingdom, for genotyping. As a result of surveys undertaken between 2008 and 2012, PPR virus (PPRV)-specific antibodies were detected in 25 locations out of 33 tested (75.7%); PPRV nucleic acid was detected in 25 locations out of 35 (71.4%); and a typical clinical picture of PPR was observed in 23 locations out of 35 (65.7%). Analysis of the partial and full genome sequences of PPR viruses (PPRVs) obtained from lymphoid tissues of dead goats collected in Tshela in the DRC in 2012 confirmed the circulation of lineage IV PPRV, showing the highest homology (99.6-100%) with the viruses circulating in the neighboring countries of Gabon, in the Aboumi outbreak in 2011, and Nigeria (99.3% homology) in 2013, although recent outbreaks in 2016 and 2018 in the western part of the DRC that borders with East Africa demonstrated circulation of lineage II and lineage III PPRV.

Pheno- and genotypic characterization and identification of novel subtypes of Peste des Petits Ruminants virus in domestic and captive wild goats in Northern Iraq.

BACKGROUND: Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is an acute or peracute contagious transboundary viral disease that mainly affects caprine and ovine and causes significant economic impact in developing countries. After two PPR virus outbreaks in 2011 and 2014, an investigation, from August 2015 to September 2016, was carried out in Northern Iraq when an increased morbidity and mortality rates were reported in the domestic and captive wild goats. In the present study, ten domestic goat farms and seven captive wild goat herds located in seven geographical areas of Northern Iraq were clinically, pathologically, serologically and genotypically characterized to determine the prevalence and potential cause of PPR virus outbreak. RESULTS: The outbreak occurred with rate of morbidity (26.1%) and mortality (11.1%) in domestic goat farms as compared to captive wild goat herds where relatively high mortality (42.9%) and low morbidity (10.9%) rates were recorded. Based on the clinical symptoms (mucopurulent nasal discharges, ulceration and erosion of oral mucosa, profuse watery diarrhea) and necropsy (hemorrhage and congestion on mucous membranes of the colon and rectum with zebra stripes lesions) results, overall, the serological test findings revealed a high frequency (47.9%) of positive samples for anti-PPRV nucleoprotein antibodies. Furthermore, the nucleoprotein (N) gene was detected in 63.2 and 89.1% of samples using conventional and reverse transcription real-time quantitative PCR assays. A phylogenetic analysis of N gene amino acid sequences clustered with the reference strain revealed lineage IV similar to the strains isolated in 2011 and 2014, respectively. However, two sub-types of lineage IV (I and II), significantly distinct from the previous strains, were also observed. CONCLUSION: The phylogenetic analysis suggests that movements of goats are possible cause and one of the important factors responsible for the spread of virus across the region. The study results would help in improving farm management practices by establishing a PPR virus eradication program using regular monitoring and vaccination program to control and mitigate the risk of re-emergence of PPR virus infection in domestic and captive wild goats in Iraq.

Transboundary spread of peste des petits ruminants virus in western China: A prediction model.

In pan Pamir Plateau countries, Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) has brought huge losses to the livestock industry and threaten the endangered wildlife. In unknown regions, revealing PPRV transmission among countries is the premise of effective prevention and control, therefore calls for quantified monitoring on disease communication among countries. In this paper, a MaxEnt model was built for the first time to predict the PPR risk within the research area. The least cost path (LCP) for PPR transboundary communication were calculated and referred to as the maximum available paths (MAP). The results show that there are many places with high-risk in the research area, and the domestic risk in China is lower than that in foreign countries and is mainly determined by human activities. Five LCPs representing corridors among Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, India and China were obtained. This study proves for the first time that there is the possibility of cross-border transmission of diseases by wild and domestic animals. In the future, it will play an important role in monitoring the PPR epidemic and blocking-up its cross-border transmission.

Sero-surveillance of emerging viral diseases in camels and cattle in Nouakchott, Mauritania: an abattoir study.

This study reports the monitoring of several emerging viral pathogens in Mauritania, which was carried out by the analysis of bovine and camel samples taken at the slaughterhouse of Nouakchott. Blood and serum were collected by random sampling from 159 camels and 118 cattle in March 2013 at the large animals abattoir in Nouakchott. Serological tests for Rift Valley Fever (RVF), Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR), West Nile disease (WND), epizootic haemorrhagic disease (EHD) and African horse sickness (AHS) were carried out using commercial ELISA kits. The samples, which resulted positives for PPR, WND and AHS, were tested with the confirmatory virus neutralization test (VNT). According to ELISA results, serological prevalence of RVF was 45% (95% CI 52.3-37.7) in camels and 16% (95% CI 22.6-9.4) in cattle. The difference between the observed prevalences in camels and in cattle was significant (p value ≤ 0.01). PPR was absent in camels and had 12% prevalence (95% CI, 17.86-6.14) in cattle. Furthermore, camels showed 92% (95% CI, 96.1-87.9) prevalence of WNV, 73% (95% CI, 82.3-63.64) of EHD and 3% (95% CI, 5.6-0.4) of AHS. This data are of relevance since provided useful feedbacks on the circulation of the pathogens in field. Moreover, this survey provided new information on the susceptibility of camels to several emerging pathogens and on the possible use of this species as sentinel animal.

Detection of peste des petits ruminants virus in pneumonic lungs from clinically apparently healthy camels slaughtered at Tambul slaughterhouse, Central Sudan.

The study investigated the presence and prevalence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) viral antigens among camels in Tambul area, Gezira State, Central Sudan, regardless of its sex, age and breed, and their possible contribution in the epidemiology of the disease in the Sudan. Hundred pneumonic lung tissues were aseptically collected from clinically apparently healthy camels showed no signs of illness at ante-mortem examination, from Tambul slaughterhouse, Tambul area, Gezira State, Central Sudan, between November and December 2018. Samples were collected based on presence of the pneumonic signs, at the tissue level, including congestion of the lungs, presence of abscesses, fragility, changes in colour and thickness of the tissue. In order to detect PPR viral antigen, haemagglutination (HA) test was employed on lung tissue homogenate, using chicken RBCs suspension, which gave a positive reaction in 17-19 min. PPRV antigen was detected in 98 of camel samples with an overall antigenic prevalence of 98%. Of note, the HA titres achievable ranged from 4 to 256 HA units (HAU) with mean titre of 14.4 HAU, whereas apparently most of the samples achieved HA titres of 8 HAU. The results demonstrated presence of PPR viral antigens associated with pneumonia in camels indicating exposure of these camels to PPRV and probably presence of subclinical infection. Infection of species other than small ruminants suggests the fact that camels are potential hosts for PPRV and might play a role (or not) in the epidemiology of the disease. Further studies are needed to demonstrate if camels are able to transmit PPRV for in-contact small ruminants or other animal species.

Serological investigations of Peste des Petits Ruminants in cattle of Nepal.

Peste des Petits Ruminant (PPR) is an infectious viral disease of small ruminants caused by PPR virus. Although goat and sheep are the primary hosts of PPR, studies have continuously reported the prevalence of circulating antibodies in large ruminants, which could bring a potential challenge to effectively control and eradicate PPR. In Nepal, seroprevalence of PPRV antibodies in cattle have not been monitored yet. To address this, a total of 255 cattle sera were collected from Rupandehi, Banke, Bara and Chitwan districts of Nepal where outbreak of PPR in small ruminants was reported previously. The sera samples were tested by competitive ELISA and the result indicated the prevalence of 5.88% PPRV antibodies in cattle which indicates the exposure of cattle to PPR virus. To make the disease control program effective, intensive monitoring of both domestic and wild animals is very important.

Isolation of peste des petits ruminants virus using primary goat kidney cell culture from kidneys obtained at slaughter.

BACKGROUND: Traditionally isolation of peste des petits ruminant virus (PPRV) is performed in Vero cells that takes several blind passages before observing typical cytopathic effects (CPEs). As an alternate, researchers have been using lamb kidney (LK) cells but day-old lambs are difficult to obtain and requires animal sacrifice. OBJECTIVE: We established a primary goat kidney (GK) cell culture from the kidneys obtained at slaughter. METHODS: The kidney of Black Bengal goats were collected from slaughter house and processed to make single cell suspension. The cells were resuspended in appropriate culture medium and maintained under optimum culture condition. RESULTS: The 80% confluent monolayer of GK cells was obtained after 15-20 days post seeding. Upon infection with a field isolate of PPRV, the well-developed CPEs characterized by cell rounding, vacuolation in the cytoplasm and fusion of cells were observed after 48 hr post infection. Virus quantification in the culture supernatant revealed more viral RNA in GK cells than LK cells. The multicycle growth analysis of PPRV showed a steady increase in the virus loads in the culture supernatant of infected GK cells, suggesting an adaptation of the PPRV in GK cells. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest that primary GK cells can be successfully prepared from the mature kidney cortical tissues and can be used for the isolation of PPRV. This system could reduce the unnecessary sacrifice of lambs or kids. Since kidneys of slaughtered goats are available throughout the year, using this protocol primary cell culture from mature goat kidney can provide primary cells to the laboratory throughout the year.

Detection of peste des petits ruminants virus in pneumonic lungs from apparently healthy sheep and goats slaughtered at Al-Hasaheisa slaughterhouse, Gezira state, central Sudan.

The study aimed to investigate the presence of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in pneumonic lung tissues from clinically apparently healthy sheep and goats and further demonstrating its prevalence in Gezira state, central Sudan. During March 2019, 99 pneumonic lung samples were collected from apparently healthy sheep (80) and goats (19) from Al-Hasaheisa slaughterhouse located in Al-Hasaheisa locality, Gezira state. Using the haemagglutination (HA) test for the detection of peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) antigen, an overall antigenic prevalence of 86.9% was demonstrated in sheep and goats lung tissue homogenate. Of note, the prevalence of PPRV is higher in goats (100%) compared to sheep (83.7%). In this study, the reported increasing prevalence of PPR in central Sudan might be because of insufficient vaccination of animals. The findings of the present study indicated the widespread of PPR amongst sheep and goats in Al-Hasaheisa, Gezira state. Detection of PPRV antigen in the pneumonic lung samples is an indication of exposure of these animals to PPRV or presence of PPR viral infection and demonstrates the role of PPR as the cause of pneumonia in small ruminants. In fact, the circulation of the virus in clinically apparently healthy animals poses a threat for other in-contact susceptible animals and could play a significant role in the spread of the disease.

Peste des petits ruminants Virus Transmission Scaling and Husbandry Practices That Contribute to Increased Transmission Risk: An Investigation among Sheep, Goats, and Cattle in Northern Tanzania.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) causes an infectious disease of high morbidity and mortality among sheep and goats which impacts millions of livestock keepers globally. PPRV transmission risk varies by production system, but a deeper understanding of how transmission scales in these systems and which husbandry practices impact risk is needed. To investigate transmission scaling and husbandry practice-associated risk, this study combined 395 household questionnaires with over 7115 cross-sectional serosurvey samples collected in Tanzania among agropastoral and pastoral households managing sheep, goats, or cattle (most managed all three, n = 284, 71.9%). Although self-reported compound-level herd size was significantly larger in pastoral than agropastoral households, the data show no evidence that household herd force of infection (FOI, per capita infection rate of susceptible hosts) increased with herd size. Seroprevalence and FOI patterns observed at the sub-village level showed significant spatial variation in FOI. Univariate analyses showed that household herd FOI was significantly higher when households reported seasonal grazing camp attendance, cattle or goat introduction to the compound, death, sale, or giving away of animals in the past 12 months, when cattle were grazed separately from sheep and goats, and when the household also managed dogs or donkeys. Multivariable analyses revealed that species, production system type, and goat or sheep introduction or seasonal grazing camp attendance, cattle or goat death or sales, or goats given away in the past 12 months significantly increased odds of seroconversion, whereas managing pigs or cattle attending seasonal grazing camps had significantly lower odds of seroconversion. Further research should investigate specific husbandry practices across production systems in other countries and in systems that include additional atypical host species to broaden understanding of PPRV transmission.

Peste des petits ruminants in Africa: a review of currently available molecular epidemiological data, 2020.

Small ruminants (e.g., sheep and goats) contribute considerably to the cash income and nutrition of small farmers in most countries in Africa and Asia. Their husbandry is threatened by the highly infectious transboundary viral disease peste des petits ruminants (PPR) caused by peste-des-petits-ruminants virus (PPRV). Given its social and economic impact, PPR is presently being targeted by international organizations for global eradication by 2030. Since its first description in Côte d'Ivoire in 1942, and particularly over the last 10 years, a large amount of molecular epidemiological data on the virus have been generated in Africa. This review aims to consolidate these data in order to have a clearer picture of the current PPR situation in Africa, which will, in turn, assist authorities in global eradication attempts.

Comparative evaluation of different antigen detection methods for the detection of peste des petits ruminants virus.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a fatal disease of small ruminants which has spread rapidly to previously PPR-free countries in recent decades, causing enormous economic losses in the affected regions. Here, two newly emerged PPR virus (PPRV) isolates from India and from the Middle East were tested in an animal trial to analyse their pathogenesis, and to evaluate serological and molecular detection methods. Animals infected with the two different PPRV isolates showed marked differences in clinical manifestation and scoring. The PPRV isolate from India was less virulent than the virus from the Middle East. Commercially available rapid detection methods for PPRV antigen (two Lateral Flow Devices (LFDs) and one antigen ELISA) were evaluated in comparison with a nucleic acid detection method. For this purpose, ocular and nasal swabs were used. Due to the easy non-invasive sampling, faecal samples were also analysed. For all rapid antigen detection methods, a high specificity of 100% was observed independent of the sample matrix and dilution buffers used. Both antigen ELISA and LFD tests showed highest sensitivities for nasal swabs. Here, the detection rate of the antigen ELISA, the LFD-PESTE-TEST and the LFD-ID Rapid-Test was 78%, 75% and 78%, respectively. Ocular swabs were less suitable for antigen detection of PPRV. These results reflect the increased viral load in nasal swabs of PPRV infected goats compared to ocular swabs. The faecal samples were the least suitable for antigen detection. In conclusion, nasal swab samples are the first choice for the antigen and genome detection of PPRV. Nevertheless, based on the excellent diagnostic specificity of the rapid tests, positive results generated with other sample matrices are solid. In contrast, negative test results can be caused on the reduced analytical sensitivity of the rapid antigen tests and must be treated with caution.

Serosurvey of Peste des Petits Ruminants in southern Spain.

Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) is a highly infectious disease caused by a virus member of the genus Morbillivirus, which mainly affects goats, sheep and wild ruminants. It is considered one of the most significant transboundary infectious diseases and represents an animal health concern in developing countries. Spain is considered a PPR-free country. Nevertheless, given its geographical proximity to countries in North Africa where PPR virus (PPRV) has been circulating in recent years, the south of Spain can be considered a risk area for the introduction of PPRV. The aim of the present study was to assess circulation of PPRV in domestic and wild ruminant species in this country. During the period 2015-2017, a total of 910 sera from domestic, wild and captive ruminants were analysed using a commercial blocking ELISA to detect antibodies against PPRV. None of the 910 (0.0%; 95% CI: 0.0-0.3) animals tested were positive for anti-PPRV antibodies. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first serosurvey study of PPR in Spain. The results indicate absence of circulating PPRV in the south of Spain during the study period. Due to the risk of PPRV introduction into European countries of the Mediterranean basin, epidemiological surveillance should be maintained and extended in this region.

Peste Des Petits Ruminants Virus and Goatpox Virus Co-Infection in Goats.

Infection of small ruminants with peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) and goatpox virus (GTPV) are endemic and can have devastating economic consequences in Asia and Africa. Co-infection with these viruses have recently been reported in goats and sheep in Nigeria. In this study, we evaluated samples from the lips of a red Sokoto goat, and describe co-infection of keratinocytes with PPRV and GTPV using histopathology and transmission electron microscopy. Eosinophilic cytoplasmic inclusion bodies were identified histologically, and ultrastructural analysis revealed numerous large cytoplasmic viral factories containing poxvirus particles and varying sizes of smaller cytoplasmic inclusions composed of PPRV nucleocapsids. These histopathological and ultrastructural findings show concurrent infection with the 2 viruses for the first time as well as the detection of PPRV particles in epithelial cells of the mucocutaneous junction of the lip.

Seroprevalence of Peste des petits ruminants in small ruminants in the North Eastern Region of India.

A seroprevalence study of the peste des petits ruminants (PPR) in small ruminants was carried out in the different states (Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura) in the North Eastern Region (NER) of India using serum samples collected from April 2017 to March 2018. A total number of 4,163 sera [sheep (n = 508) and goats (n = 3,655)] collected from 345 epi­units/villages covering 176 municipalities in NER were screened by competitive ELISA kit for the detection of PPR virus antibodies. The results revealed that the seroprevalence of PPR in small ruminants in Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura was 34.3%, 10.3%, 4.7%, 15.7%, 14.7%, and 5.5%, respectively with an overall 14.5% prevalence.Association between the presence of antibodies and goats has been showed to be significant (p < 0.01) at the NER level level and within every single state. This manuscript highlights the need for continuous monitoring of this important disease as for the severe economic impact PPR may have in the affected countries.

Characterisation of Peste Des Petits Ruminants Disease in Pastoralist Flocks in Ngorongoro District of Northern Tanzania and Bluetongue Virus Co-Infection.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) disease was first confirmed in Tanzania in 2008 in sheep and goats in Ngorongoro District, northern Tanzania, and is now endemic in this area. This study aimed to characterise PPR disease in pastoralist small ruminant flocks in Ngorongoro District. During June 2015, 33 PPR-like disease reports were investigated in different parts of the district, using semi-structured interviews, clinical examinations, PPR virus rapid detection test (PPRV-RDT), and laboratory analysis. Ten flocks were confirmed as PPRV infected by PPRV-RDT and/or real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), and two flocks were co-infected with bluetongue virus (BTV), confirmed by RT-qPCR. Phylogenetic analysis of six partial N gene sequences showed that the PPR viruses clustered with recent lineage III Tanzanian viruses, and grouped with Ugandan, Kenyan and Democratic Republic of Congo isolates. No PPR-like disease was reported in wildlife. There was considerable variation in clinical syndromes between flocks: some showed a full range of PPR signs, while others were predominantly respiratory, diarrhoea, or oro-nasal syndromes, which were associated with different local disease names (olodua-a term for rinderpest, olkipiei-lung disease, oloirobi-fever, enkorotik-diarrhoea). BTV co-infection was associated with severe oro-nasal lesions. This clinical variability makes the field diagnosis of PPR challenging, highlighting the importance of access to pen-side antigen tests and multiplex assays to support improved surveillance and targeting of control activities for PPR eradication.

An investigation on the prevalence of peste des petits ruminants in the camels of Sindh, Pakistan.

The present study investigated the status of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) for the first time in the camels of Pakistan. The samples were collected from the camel residing area of Sindh, Pakistan, and analyzed for breeds (Dhatti and Larri), districts (Tharparkar and Umerkot), age (young, adult, and old), and sexes (male and female). The sera samples (n = 200) were analyzed for the detection of antibodies using a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). Moreover, the nasal and fecal samples were screened for the PPR virus. Finally, the positive nasal and fecal samples were validated using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunocapture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ic-ELISA). The cELISA results showed an overall prevalence of 8.5% PPR in the study area. The camels of Tharparkar (10.9%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 9.2-12.9) showed higher seroprevalence of PPR antibodies than those of Umerkot (5.5%; 95% CI 4.1-7.2). Moreover, the Larri breed exhibited slightly greater resistance against the disease, because the camels of Dhatti breed (9.0%; 95% CI 7.5-11.0) exhibited a numerically higher (p > 0.05) seroprevalence of PPR in comparison with those of Larri breed (7.9%; 95% CI 6.4-9.9). Furthermore, the young and old camels were more susceptible to the disease attack, because the adults (6.3%; 95% CI 5.0-7.8) exhibited significantly (p < 0.05) lower prevalence rate than the young (9.2%; 95% CI 7.6-11.1) and old (10.3%; 95% CI 8.9-11.9) camels. Finally, the results of the Ic-ELISA and HA test established the 8.3 and 8.2% prevalence of PPR antigen in nasal and fecal material samples, respectively, while the RT-PCR results validated the seropositive animals. These findings confirmed that the prevalence of PPRV infection in the camels of the Sindh province of Pakistan hence urged the need to take effective measures for prevention and control of the disease.

A versatile dual-use RT-PCR control for use in assays for the detection of peste des petits ruminants virus.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute and highly contagious disease with high mortality in small ruminants and significant socioeconomic impact in developing countries. The causative agent is peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV). The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) have set up a goal for the global eradication of PPR by 2030. To assist in this effort, an easily produced, specific, non-pathogenic bacteriophage Qß based real-time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) PPRV positive control was developed. This control is compatible for use with two previously described PPRV qRT-PCR assays either as singleplex or multiplex platform. Additionally, the control can also be used for assembling proficiency testing panels for competency testing in diagnostic laboratories. Use of the Qß phage based PPRV control as a positive control or in proficiency testing panels reduces the risk of inadvertent release of pathogenic PPRV from diagnostic laboratories, which would be especially important should PPR be eradicated in the future.

Peste des petits ruminants pathogenesis on experimental infected goats by the Moroccan 2015 isolate.

BACKGROUND: Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a viral disease of major economic importance on small ruminants. Goats are usually known to be more susceptible to the disease. Infection chronology, virus circulation, and the disease early detection need to be better understood. This study evaluates the tissue tropism and pathogenesis of PPR following experimental infection of goats using a lineage IV virus, the most dominant in the world originated from Asia. PPRV infection was experimentally induced in 4 six-month-old goats by intra-nasal and intravenous route of cell virus suspension and from infectious mashed tissue. The clinical signs were observed and goats were euthanized at predetermined clinical score level for post-mortem examinations and PPRV detection by RT-PCR. Clinical signs of infection were present, pyrexia, serous-mucopurulent nasal discharges, coughing, diarrhea and asthenia, for both cell virus suspension and infectious mashed tissue. PPRV genome was highly detected in swabs and tissues with clinical signs dominated by pulmonary attack and digestive symptoms secondary. RESULTS: Results of this study indicates that PPRV is an invasive infection in animals that in a short period, less than 10 days, invade all vital organs. On live animals, early diagnostic may be easily done on lacrimal and rectal swabs. CONCLUSION: The experimental PPRV-infection model using the cell virus suspension is suitable for vaccine evaluation as a standard model.

Toward peste des petits virus (PPRV) eradication: Diagnostic approaches, novel vaccines, and control strategies.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is an acute transboundary infectious viral disease affecting domestic and wild small ruminants' species besides camels reared in Africa, Asia and the Middle East. The virus is a serious paramount challenge to the sustainable agriculture advancement in the developing world. The disease outbreak was also detected for the first time in the European Union namely in Bulgaria at 2018. Therefore, the disease has lately been aimed for eradication with the purpose of worldwide clearance by 2030. Radically, the vaccines needed for effectively accomplishing this aim are presently convenient; however, the availableness of innovative modern vaccines to fulfill the desideratum for Differentiating between Infected and Vaccinated Animals (DIVA) may mitigate time spent and financial disbursement of serological monitoring and surveillance in the advanced levels for any disease obliteration campaign. We here highlight what is at the present time well-known about the virus and the different available diagnostic tools. Further, we interject on current updates and insights on several novel vaccines and on the possible current and prospective strategies to be applied for disease control.

Improved PCR diagnostics using up-to-date in silico validation: An F-gene RT-qPCR assay for the detection of all four lineages of peste des petits ruminants virus.

Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) is a globally significant disease of small ruminants caused by the peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) that is considered for eradication by 2030 by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO). Critical to the eradication of PPR are accurate diagnostic assays. RT-qPCR assays targeting the nucleocapsid gene of PPRV have been successfully used for the diagnosis of PPR. We describe the development of an RT-qPCR assay targeting an alternative region (the fusion (F) gene) based on the most up-to-date PPRV sequence data. In silico analysis of the F-gene RT-qPCR assay performed using PCRv software indicated 98% sensitivity and 100% specificity against all PPRV sequences published in Genbank. The assay indicated the greatest in silico sensitivity in comparison to other previously published and recommended PPRV RT-qPCR assays. We evaluated the assay using strains representative of all 4 lineages in addition to samples obtained from naturally and experimentally-infected animals. The F-gene RT-qPCR assay showed 100% diagnostic specificity and demonstrated a limit of detection of 10 PPRV genome copies per µl. This RT-qPCR assay can be used in isolation or in conjunction with other assays for confirmation of PPR and should support the global efforts for eradication.